1. What is the purpose of a cryptographic nonce? What are some characteristics of a good nonce?

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2. What is the purpose of a hash? Why is this type of algorithm used in creating a MAC?

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3. One essential part of TLS is verifying certificates. Which part of network security (confidentiality, authentication, message integrity, and availability) do certificates address? Support your answer. 

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4. TLS is used alongside many other application layer protocols besides HTTP. List two other protocols that TLS is used with and why that level of encryption is necessary.

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